Deutsch-Chinesische Enzyklopädie, 德汉百科
Yunnan Sheng-YN
Eat and Drink
Anhui Sheng-AH
Fermentierter Tee
Guangxi Zhuangzu Zizhiqu-GX
Hubei Sheng-HB
Hunan Sheng-HN
Shaanxi Sheng-SN
Sichuan Sheng-SC
Yunnan Sheng-YN
黒茶の茶葉色は褐色から黒色で、水色は紅茶や烏龍茶に似た濃いオレンジや濃い赤色が多い[1]。中には緑茶に近い水色の方包茶や、抽出するとコロナ状のリングが現れる花巻茶などもある。黒茶の香りは「陳香（ツンシャン）」（熟成した香り）と呼ばれ、その独特な香気は堆積工程で作り出される[1]。茯磚茶の製造には圧製後に「菌花香」と呼ばれる香気を発するカビを加える「発花」と呼ばれる工程がある。
黒茶の味の特徴として、発酵の過程で生じる微生物の代謝によって苦味成分のポリフェノール、旨味成分のアミノ酸が減少し、可溶性糖類が増加することから、他の茶に比べて渋みの少ないまろやかな味となっている[1]。
一般に茶は、若芽が多く新鮮なほど評価が高く、時間の経過とともにその価値が落ちると考えられるが、発酵茶である黒茶は他の茶と異なり成熟したチャノキの葉を使い、枝ごと切り取って製造するものもある[1]。また、熟成が進むとともに苦味や渋味が消え風味が豊かになることから、製造から時間が経ったものほど価値が高い[2]。
Fermented tea (also known as post-fermented tea or dark tea) is a class of tea that has undergone microbial fermentation, from several months to many years. The exposure of the tea leaves to humidity and oxygen during the process also causes endo-oxidation (derived from the tea-leaf enzymes themselves) and exo-oxidation (which is microbially catalysed). The tea leaves and the liquor made from them become darker with oxidation. Thus, the various kinds of fermented teas produced across China are also referred to as dark tea, not be confused with black tea. The most famous fermented tea is kombucha which is often homebrewed, pu-erh, produced in Yunnan Province,[1][2] and the Anhua dark tea produced in Anhua County of Hunan Province.
The fermentation of tea leaves alters their chemistry, affecting the organoleptic qualities of the tea made from them. Fermentation affects the smell of the tea and typically mellows its taste, reducing astringency and bitterness while improving mouthfeel and aftertaste. The microbes may also produce metabolites with health benefits.[1][3]
The fermentation is carried out primarily by molds. Aspergillus niger was implicated as the main microbial organism in the Pu-erh process,[1][4][5] but that species identification has been challenged by comprehensive PCR-DGGE analysis, which points to Aspergillus luchuensis as the primary agent of fermentation.[6][7][8][9]
Most fermented teas are made in China, but several varieties are produced in Japan.[10] In Shan State, Myanmar, lahpet is a form of fermented tea that is eaten as a vegetable, and similar pickled teas are also eaten in northern Thailand and southern Yunnan.[11]
Un thé post-fermenté, parfois dit thé sombre ou thé noir-noir, a subi une période de vieillissement à l'air libre allant de quelques mois à plusieurs années.
Le thé a généralement subi une première oxydation comme le thé noir ou l'Oolong. Puis sous l'influence de moisissures, de levures et de bactéries, il subit une fermentation, en milieu chaud et humide. Il peut alors être vieilli plusieurs années, ce qui changera radicalement son goût, passant de l'astringence et de l'amertume à des saveurs plus onctueuses et terreuses.
Les Chinois appellent littéralement « thé noir » un thé post-fermenté, tandis qu'ils dénomment « thé rouge » ce qu'un Occidental appelle thé noir1,2,3.
Il tè postfermentato è un tipo di tè prodotto con le foglie di Camellia sinensis stabilizzate tramite torrefazione ed eventualmente essiccate, successivamente sottoposte a un processo di fermentazione-ossidazione tramite stagionatura naturale o in particolari condizioni di temperatura e umidità.[1]
Il processo di postfermentazione (in cinese 后发酵 hòu fājiào) si differenzia da quello di ossidazione enzimatica (impropriamente chiamata "fermentazione", in cinese 发酵 fājiào) cui si sottopongono le foglie di tè appena raccolte per la produzione del tè nero e che, nel caso del tè oolong, precede la fase di torrefazione.
In Cina e nei paesi dell'Asia Orientale i tè postfermentati vengono chiamati "tè neri", (cinese 黑茶 hēichá) per il colore delle foglie e dell'infuso. Non si devono confondere con la tipologia dei tè neri conosciuti in Occidente, a loro volta chiamati "tè rossi" in Cina e in Asia Orientale.
Il tè sottoposto a questo processo di lavorazione tipicamente presenta un infuso di colore rosso-marrone scuro, di sapore morbido, con note balsamiche e sentori di legno e terra bagnata.
Постферментированный чай — чай, который прошёл процесс микробной ферментации от нескольких месяцев до многих лет, обычно во влажной среде и при доступе кислорода. Самый известный постферментированный чай пуэр производится в провинции Юньнань, лучшие сорта его — в селении Булан Шань уезда Минхай.
Ферментация влияет на органолептические свойства чая, она меняет запах, как правило, смягчает вкус, уменьшая терпкость и горечь. Микроорганизмы могут также производить метаболиты, полезные для здоровья.
Transport and traffic
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Architecture
Religion
Das Kloster Ganden Songtsenling (Tibetisch: དགའ་ལྡན་སུམ་རྩེན་གླིང་, Wylie: dga' ldan sum rtsen gling; chinesisch 噶丹松赞林寺, Pinyin Gádān Sōngzànlín Sì, englisch Songzanlin Lamasery) ist ein Kloster des tibetischen Buddhismus in Shangri-La, dem früheren Zhongdian (中甸县), im Autonomen Bezirk Dêqên[1] der Tibeter im Nordwesten der chinesischen Provinz Yunnan. Es ist das größte Kloster der Gelug-Schule des tibetischen Buddhismus in Yunnan. (Vorsicht: Es existieren viele Alternativnamen, s.u.)
1679 hatte der fünfte Dalai Lama – Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso – den chinesischen Kaiser Kangxi um die Genehmigung gebeten, hatte selbst den Ort ausgewählt, den Tempel aufgebaut und ihm seinen Namen gegeben. Qing-Kaiser Yongzheng gab ihm den chinesischen Namen Guihua-Kloster[2]. Der Tempel war die Aufenthaltsstätte bekannter tibetischer buddhistischer Mönche.
Es liegt auf dem Reiseweg vieler Touristen nach Tibet. Auch die Grenze zur Provinz Sichuan liegt in seiner Nähe.
Literature
Gansu Sheng-GS
History
Qinghai Sheng-QH
Sichuan Sheng-SC
Xinjiang Uygur Zizhiqu-XJ
Xizang Zizhiqu-XZ
Yunnan Sheng-YN
格萨尔王传（藏语：གེ་སར་རྒྱལ་པོ་，威利：Ge-sar rgal-po，蒙古语：ᠭᠡᠰᠡᠷ
ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨ），流行在西藏和中亚地区的著名史诗，目前在西藏、蒙古和土族中间尚有140位演唱艺人在说唱这部史诗。
格萨尔王传已经存在有一千多年，长达60万诗行，相当于印度史诗《摩诃婆罗多》3部长，《罗摩衍那》15部，是世界最长的史诗。讲述传说中的岭国国王格萨尔的故事，对藏传佛教影响很大。
格萨尔王传在目前有多达五十多种不同的版本，但仅中国大陆发行的藏文版本就已达到120册，分29章。而第一个印刷发行的版本是1716年，在北京发布的蒙古文版。
Gesar[1] ist ein epischer tibetischer König, dessen Heldentaten in von Barden vorgetragenen Gesängen, in ihrer Gesamtheit Gesar-Epos genannt, beschrieben werden. Dieses Epos gilt als der größte zentralasiatische Epenzyklus.
Dieses Korpus von Erzählungen enthält das Grundmotiv vom Kampf des guten tibetischen Herrschers Gesar, der als Mensch geboren wird, jedoch viele göttliche Fähigkeiten hat, gegen das Böse in der Welt. Gesars kriegerische und listenreiche Taten werden in ganz Zentralasien von Ladakh bis in die Mongolei, besonders aber in Osttibet, in Form von Gesängen tradiert, daher wird es meist Gesar-Epos genannt. Es existiert unter anderem in tibetischer, mongolischer (ᠭᠡᠰᠡᠷ
ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨ ᠤ
ᠲᠤᠭᠤᠵᠢ, Гэсэрийн тууж) und türkischer Sprache. Die Vortragenden waren und sind z. T. noch spezielle Gesar-Barden, die teilweise Texte im Umfang dicker Bücher memorieren können.
Das Epos ist sehr umfangreich und nimmt seinen Anfang mit der Entstehung der Welt. Es wurde wahrscheinlich für eine Aufführung über mehrere Tage hinweg konzipiert.
The Epic of King Gesar[a] (/ˈɡɛzər, ˈɡɛs-/), also spelled Geser (especially in Mongolian contexts) or Kesar (/ˈkɛzər, ˈkɛs-/), is an epic cycle, of Tibet and greater Central Asia, believed to date from the 12th century, that relates the heroic deeds of the culture hero Gesar,[1] the fearless lord of the legendary kingdom of Ling (Wylie: gling). It is recorded variously in poetry and prose, through oral poetry performance, [2] it is sung widely throughout Central Asia and North East of South Asia. Its classic version is to be found in central Tibet.[3] Some 100 bards of this epic (Wylie: sgrung, "tale")[4] are still active today in the Gesar belt of China.[5] Tibetan, Mongolian, Buryat, Balti, Ladakhi and Monguor singers maintain the oral tradition and the epic has attracted intense scholarly curiosity as one of the few oral epic traditions to survive as a performing art. Besides stories conserved by such Chinese minorities as the Bai, Naxi, the Pumi, Lisu, Yugur[6] and Salar,[7] versions of the epic are also recorded among the Balti of Baltistan, the Burusho people of Hunza and Gilgit[6] and the Kalmyk and Ladakhi peoples,[8][9] in Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, and among various Tibeto-Burmese, Turkic, and Tungus tribes.[10] The first printed version was a Mongolian text published in Beijing in 1716.[11]
The epic is composed of a very large body of versions, each with many variants, and is reputed by some to be the longest in the world.[4] Although there is no one definitive text, the Chinese compilation so far of just its Tibetan versions has filled some 120 volumes, more than one million verses,[4] divided into 29 "chapters".[12] Western calculations speak of more than 50 different books edited so far in China, India and Tibet.[4]
L'épopée du roi Guésar — dit aussi Gesar Khan ou Gesar de Ling — est le poème épique le plus célèbre des populations tibétaines1, et mongoles.
Elle comporterait plusieurs millions de vers, ce qui en ferait l'œuvre littéraire la plus longue actuellement connue dans le monde. Composée il y a plus de huit siècles à partir de récits beaucoup plus anciens, elle est encore interprétée de nos jours par plusieurs dizaines de bardes dans les régions de populations tibétaines et mongoles.
L'épopée est inscrite au Patrimoine culturel immatériel de l'humanité depuis 2009 par l'UNESCO2.
L’Epica di Re Gesar, anche scritto Geser (particolarmente in contesti mongoli) o Gesser o Kesar, è un ciclo epico, ritenuto risalire al XII secolo, che racconta le gesta dell'eroe culturale Gesar [1], impavido signore del leggendario regno di Ling. Composto in varie forme di poesia e prosa aventi come stile tipico di rappresentazione lo shuochang cinese[2] e cantato in molte zone dell'Asia centrale e del nord est dell'Asia meridionale, la sua versione classica è rintracciabile nel Tibet centrale.[3] Un centinaio di bardi di questa narrazione epica[4] sono tuttora attivi nella cosiddetta "cintura Gesar" della Cina[5]. La tradizione è mantenuta viva da centinaia di cantastorie tibetani, mongoli, buriati, balti, ladakhi e tu ovvero mongour, e l'epica ha suscitato viva curiosità da parte degli studiosi come una delle poche tradizioni orali epiche sopravvissute in forma di arte performativa. Oltre agli intrecci conservati da minoranze cinesi come i bai, i naxi, i pumi, i lisu, gli iuguri[6] e i salar[7], ulteriori versioni dell'epica si riscontrano anche in Pakistan — tra i balti del Baltistan e i burúšo di Hunza e Gilgit [8], oltre che presso calmucchi e ladakhi[9][10], in Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, tra svariate etnie tibeto-birmane, popolazioni di lingue turche e tribù tunguse[11]. La sua prima versione stampata è stato un testo mongolo pubblicato a Pechino nel 1716.[12]
L'epica si compone di un amplissimo corpus di versioni, ciascuna delle quali a sua volta con molte varianti, e secondo alcuni sarebbe la più lunga del mondo.[13] Sebbene non esista un testo definitivo, l'attuale compilazione cinese soltanto delle versioni tibetane ha riempito 120 volumi, più di un milione di versi[14] divisi in 29 "capitoli".[15] Secondo conteggi occidentali, più di 50 libri sarebbero a questo punto pubblicati in Cina, India e Tibet.[13]
El rey Guesar es una epopeya tibetana. Es el escrito más largo del mundo, y actualmente el texto épico más antiguo que conserva vitalidad, y que se sigue recitando y ampliando oralmente hasta hoy en día.
Geography
Energy resource
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Energy resource
Hydroelectric power plants
Erneuerbare Energie
Hydropower
Sichuan Sheng-SC
Yunnan Sheng-YN
